Climate change poses a significant threat to children worldwide, with nearly half at “extremely high risk” (UNICEF, 2021, p. 4). This paper explores the specific impacts of climate change on children, categorizing vulnerable groups into those living in areas directly affected by eco-devastation, those displaced by eco-migration, and those experiencing eco-anxiety. The paper analyzes how these vulnerabilities affect children’s development and well-being. Recommendations are offered to enhance eco-resilience among these young populations, emphasizing targeted strategies in climate mitigation planning and funding to address the specific risks children face.
The “inconvenient truth” (Guggenheim, 2006) of climate change is a significant concern, especially for our world’s children and youth (UNICEF, 2021). UNICEF’s Children’s Climate Risk Index revealed that nearly half of the world’s children – an estimated one billion – were “at ‘extremely high risk’ of the impacts of climate change” (UNICEF, 2021, p. 4). While most children face direct eco-devastation, some are displaced, and others experience eco-anxiety (Clayton et al., 2017). We are facing a “children’s rights crisis” (UNICEF, 2021). Despite children’s unique vulnerabilities to climate change, their plight is often under-considered in mitigation planning and funding (UNICEF, 2023b). This paper examines how climate change impacts children and youth in three key contexts: 1) those living in regions directly impacted by eco-devastation, 2) those displaced by eco-migration, and 3) those experiencing eco-anxiety.
1.0 Eco-Devastations: Children Living with Immediate Impacts of Climate Change
Eco-devastations can be categorized as rapid-onset shocks (e.g., hurricanes, floods) and slow-onset events (e.g., drought, water scarcity) (Cattaneo, 2019; Kazan & Orgill-Meyer, 2020). Rapid-onset shocks are the most immediately disruptive, causing death, illness, and displacement. Over the last six years, an estimated 43 million children have been displaced by such events (UNICEF, 2023a). The most prevalent slow-onset form of eco-devastation is drought and water scarcity. UNICEF estimates that 739 million children live with high or extremely high levels of water scarcity, with nearly a third of children worldwide exposed to “extreme” water scarcity (UNICEF, 2023b). These risks are unevenly distributed, with 64% of children in the Middle East and North Africa and 55% in South Asia lacking access to potable water, compared to 11% in Western Europe. Water scarcity is linked to food shortages, malnutrition, and waterborne diseases (like cholera and dysentery), to which infants and toddlers are particularly vulnerable (Hanna & Oliva, 2016; UNICEF, 2023b). Climate change and eco-devastations are most immediately dangerous for children in the Global South, where health is already compromised (Hanna & Oliva, 2016; UNICEF, 2023b). Northern Africa faces higher rates of water scarcity and air pollution, while tropical areas face increased risks of flooding and vector-borne diseases. The Middle East experiences excessive heat, drought, desertification, and dust storms, while East Asia and the Pacific face rising sea levels, ocean acidification, cyclones, floods, landslides, and droughts (UNICEF, 2023b).
1.1 Impacts of Eco-devastations on Children
Children are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to their developing bodies and minds (Hanna & Oliva, 2016; UNICEF, 2023b). These risks are particularly damaging when experienced prenatally[1] and during early childhood due to heightened neurobiological plasticity (Cuartas et al., 2024). Eco-devastations can create havoc or multiply pre-existing vulnerabilities for already fragilely resourced children stemming from a lack of resources to adapt to and manage the impacts of climate change with lasting impacts (Cuartas et al., 2024; Hanna & Oliva, 2016). The vast majority live in “zones of entrapment,” unable to migrate away from the source of disruptions (McMichael, 2020; UNICEF, 2023a, b).
1.1.1 Physical Health Implications. It is estimated that “children will experience 80% of physical health impacts of climate change” (Sanson et al., 2022, p. 2). Children are most vulnerable to the health impacts of climate change due to their developmental stage, high exposure, and the regions they live in (Sanson et al., 2022). Rapid-onset shocks can lead to injuries, illnesses, fatalities, loss of loved ones, and disrupted access to necessities (Sanson et al., 2022). Slow-onset eco-devastations, such as extreme heat and water scarcity, can cause heat-related illnesses, malnutrition, stunted growth, and waterborne diseases (Hanna & Oliva, 2016; UNICEF, 2023b).
1.1.2 Mental Health Implications. Much less is known about the mental health implications of living with eco-devastations as attention is focused on triaging immediate health needs (Sanson et al., 2022). Research on the mental health implications of eco-devastation is primarily based on rapid-onset events, with less known about the effects of slow-onset events (Burrows et al., 2024). Available research suggests that eco-devastation is linked to anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) for children and youth (Burrows et al., 2024; Sanson et al., 2022; Shultz et al., 2019).
Living in environments with limited access to water can cause chronic stress and anxiety for children, youth, and their families. Uncertainty about when and where the next water supply will be available can lead to psychological distress. Parents may become psychologically compromised, which affects their ability to attend to their children’s well-being in optimal ways (Cuartas et al., 2024; Hanna & Olivia, 2016). Some encouraging research suggests, however, that for some, post-traumatic growth can result (Clayton et al., 2017).
1.1.3 Increased Exposure to Violence & Exploitation. Climate change-related violence may increase due to water scarcity, declining agricultural productivity, and loss of natural resources, exacerbating existing tensions and generating new instability (Homer, 1999; Selby et al., 2017). Children, especially those from marginalized communities, may be at increased risk of exploitation, including child labor trafficking and child transactional sexual exploitation, as families may struggle to meet their basic needs (Hanna & Olivia, 2016).
1.1.4 Educational Impacts. Educational access, experiences, and outcomes are at risk for children living in eco-devastated regions. Schools in these areas often lack adequate water and sanitation facilities, posing health risks for students and contributing to absenteeism due to illness (Shohel, 2022). Moreover, water scarcity disproportionately affects girls, who are frequently responsible for water collection in many cultures (Devonald et al., 2020). These additional responsibilities exacerbate gender disparities in education, as girls are more likely to be exposed to waterborne diseases and have less time for schoolwork compared to boys (Devonald et al., 2020).
2.0 Eco-Migrations: Children Displaced by Climate Change
The evidence presented by UNICEF (2021, 2023a, b) suggests that most “climate-changed” children remain in place despite their adversities, particularly those impacted by slow-onset drought and water scarcity (UNICEF, 2023a). Only those with more resources, mainly living among the world’s poorest nations, can migrate (Kaczan & Orgill-Meyer, 2020). When families from poorer regions move, it is most likely within national borders and from rural to urban areas (McMichael, 2023). Nonetheless, climate change has become a “driver of human displacement” (UNICEF, 2023a, p. 19). Between 2016 and 2021, an estimated 134.1 million people were classified as eco-migrants, including 43.1 million children (UNICEF, 2023a) [see Figure 2]. The majority were displaced by storms (21.2 million) or floods (19.7 million), primarily from the Philippines, India, China, Bangladesh, Somalia, Indonesia, and Ethiopia. Droughts and wildfires also precipitated migration for children, with those displaced by wildfires largely originating from the United States, Canada, and Israel (UNICEF, 2023a).
Eco-migration often results from compound climate change-related hazards (UNICEF, 2023a) and may be multiply determined due to the adverse effects on livelihoods, health, violence, and unrest (McLeman & Smit, 2006). Climate-induced displacement can occur internally or across international borders, with the latter posing additional legal, cultural, and linguistic barriers (Warner, 2010).
While eco-migrants could be considered “ecological refugees” (Myers, 1994), international law does not recognize them as refugees under the 1951 Refugee Convention, which was implemented before climate change was foreseen (McAdam, 2012; Nishimura, 2015). Displaced children may face statelessness, liminal documentation issues, and challenges in accessing healthcare, education, and other services (Southwick & Lynch, 2009). Unaccompanied minors face additional difficulties navigating asylum procedures (Bhabha, 2014). The legal status and protections afforded to displaced children vary by country, creating uncertainty and insecurity (Ferris, 2012).
2.1 Impacts of Eco-Migration on Children
Displaced children are a particularly vulnerable population, facing multifaceted challenges that can have profound impacts on their physical health, mental health, and educational opportunities.
2.1.1 Physical Health Impacts. Children displaced by climate change face numerous physical health challenges. Physical injuries may result from violence, accidents, or hazardous conditions experienced before, during, and after displacement (Sirin & Rogers-Sirin, 2015). In refugee camps, displaced children are exposed to high rates of infectious diseases due to overcrowding, poor sanitation, and limited access to clean water, with diarrhea, respiratory infections, and malaria being common (Gupta et al., 2014). Incomplete vaccination coverage increases the risk of outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases. Malnutrition and nutritional deficiencies are significant issues among refugee children due to insufficient food supplies, lack of dietary diversity, and interruptions in food distribution (Black et al., 2013). Undernutrition can lead to stunting, wasting, and micronutrient deficiencies, impacting children’s growth and development (Sphere Project, 2011).
2.1.2 Mental Health Impacts. The mental health impacts on displaced children are profound and multifaceted. Forced migration involves loss at multiple levels, including material possessions, lifestyle, social status, community, and a sense of familiarity and safety (Shultz et al., 2019). Experiencing or witnessing traumatic events, such as natural disasters and the loss of homes or loved ones, can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression (Fergusson & Lynskey, 1996). Displacement-related uncertainty and the loss of community and social networks can further exacerbate stress, anxiety, and disrupt children’s sense of belonging and security (Pfefferbaum & North, 2008).
Developmental psychologists emphasize the crucial role of parents and caregivers in moderating the effects of extreme stress (Cuartas et al., 2024; Wachs, 2009). However, eco-migrant children often experience separation from or loss of close family members during displacement. Moreover, traumatized parents facing their own mental health challenges may struggle to provide optimally sensitive caregiving (Cuartas et al., 2024; Eltanamly et al., 2023; Hope et al., 2019). Conversely, a supportive caretaking environment can significantly contribute to the resilience of displaced children (Jafari et al., 2022).
Refugee children often experience traumatic events, such as violence, loss of loved ones, or direct threats to their safety. The prevalence of PTSD, depression, and anxiety disorders is high among refugee children, impacting their overall well-being and ability to engage in daily activities and education (Fazel et al., 2012; Betancourt et al., 2015). Psychological adjustment to new circumstances, including stress related to living in migrant camps, can affect their sense of security, identity, and belonging. However, research also highlights the remarkable resilience of refugee children and the importance of supportive relationships and community networks in fostering their mental health and well-being (Kia-Keating & Ellis, 2007; Jafari et al., 2022; Sim et al., 2018).
2.1.3 Educational Impacts. Displacement disrupts educational pathways, leading to delayed enrollment, increased dropout rates, and learning gaps. Displaced children face barriers to education, including interruptions in schooling, lack of documentation, language differences, and financial constraints.
Becoming a refugee often means abruptly abandoning schooling due to conflict, persecution, or environmental disaster in home countries. The transient nature of displacement can lead to frequent school changes, interrupting educational continuity and contributing to lower academic achievement (Dryden-Peterson, 2015). Interrupted schooling affects both current learning and long-term educational trajectories and opportunities (Dryden-Peterson, 2015).
Access to education in host countries is challenging for refugee children. Legal barriers, lack of documentation, overcrowded camps, and insufficient educational provisions in refugee settlements hinder school enrollment. Host countries may lack the infrastructure or resources to accommodate displaced learners (UNHCR, 2016). The quality of education for refugee children is often compromised, with programs lacking adequately trained teachers, resources, and curricular relevance (Sinclair, 2001). Language barriers make it difficult for displaced students to understand lessons and participate in class, leading to academic struggles, lower self-esteem, and increased dropout rates (McBrien, 2005).
Displaced children often carry psychological burdens of trauma and loss, impeding their capacity to focus on learning. While psychological support is paramount, such services are often limited or non-existent in refugee education settings. Social integration challenges, including discrimination and bullying, can further alienate refugee children from the learning environment and host society (Fazel et al., 2012). However, educational contexts that support peer relationships (Jafari et al., 2022) and promote belongingness (Dryden-Peterson, 2022) foster positive adaptation.
3.0 Eco-Anxiety: Children & Youth Preoccupied with Climate Change
Children and youth not directly disrupted by climate change may still experience eco-anxiety, a term encompassing climate anxiety, eco-trauma, ecological grief, and eco-dread (Burke et al., 2018; Clayton et al., 2017; Ojala, 2015; Sanson et al., 2022). Youth are more likely than their elders to worry about climate change’s impact on their future (Bell et al., 2021).
Eco-anxiety, defined as “a chronic fear of environmental doom” (Clayton et al., 2017, p. 68), can manifest as anxiety, grief, guilt, anger, helplessness, and numbness (Clayton et al., 2017; Goldman, 2022; Hickman et al., 2022). Some researchers suggest eco-anxiety is an adaptive response to realistic concerns (Clayton et al., 2017; Hickman et al., 2022) and that channeling these concerns into sustainable living and activism are healthy coping strategies (Clayton et al., 2017; Goldman, 2022).
Notably, most research on eco-anxiety has been conducted in high-income nations in the Global North (Lee et al., 2020; Sanson et al., 2022). This body of work suggested that eco-anxiety was primarily an issue in the Global North, with children and youth learning about climate change through media, school, and social networks, perceiving it as a distant issue (Sanson et al., 2022). In contrast, the limited evidence from low- and middle-income countries indicated that children in these regions understand climate change through direct, often traumatic experiences, responding with despair and hopelessness (Sanson et al., 2022).
However, a recent global survey of 16-25-year-olds challenged this notion, revealing widespread eco-anxiety across countries in both the Global North and South (Hickman et al., 2021). The majority of respondents were worried about climate change and reported sadness, anxiety, anger, powerlessness, helplessness, and guilt, with over 45% saying these feelings negatively affected their daily functioning. Strikingly, these trends were most extreme in countries highly impacted by rapid-onset eco-devastation, such as the Philippines, India, and Brazil. This suggests that children and youth directly affected by climate disruptions are even more likely to report eco-anxiety concerns, contrary to the previous focus on eco-anxiety as a Global North phenomenon.
4.0 Recommendations to Support Climate Resilience for Children and Youth
Children and youth across the globe are deeply affected by climate change, with implications for their physical health, psychological well-being, educational experiences, and potential to flourish. We must recognize these profound impacts and prioritize children and youth in policies and practices that foster climate resilience (UNICEF, 2023b) and never allow them to simply be an afterthought in our resilience planning.
Following the MAST framework of the Planetary Protocol for Climate Change Resilience and UNICEF’s child’s rights-oriented recommendations at COP-28 is essential. Strategies must be tailored to address the varying experiences of children in different regions, including those living with eco-devastations, those displaced by climate change, and those experiencing eco-anxiety.
For those living with eco-devastations, adapting and expanding essential health and social services is crucial. This requires significant increases in climate financing, private sector involvement, and programs to prepare for and respond to sudden-onset climate events (UNICEF, 2023b; Suárez-Orozco & Senarriaga-Esteve, 2024).
For children and families displaced by climate change, we must recognize climate migration as a reality and support policies that provide protection, healthcare, mental health services, and education for displaced children and their families (UNICEF, 2023a; Biermann & Boas, 2008).
Addressing eco-anxiety requires focusing on the mental health and future orientation of children and youth in both the Global North and South (Sanson et al., 2022). Empowering young people through community-led initiatives, youth-led protests, and mobilization can foster resilience and a sense of agency (Sanson et al., 2022; Hart et al., 2014).
Lastly, integrating climate science, environmental studies, and sustainability education into school curricula worldwide is crucial for equipping the next generation with the knowledge and skills needed to navigate and adapt to the challenges posed by climate change (Suárez-Orozco & Senarriaga-Esteve, 2024).
5.0 In Conclusion
It is imperative to recognize that climate change has a profound impact on our world’s children and youth. Therefore, it is crucial that our responses are swift, comprehensive, and child centric. Efforts to bolster climate resilience must include targeted support for the physical and mental health of children, ensure their educational empowerment, and actively engage young people in climate action, fostering their agency and resilience. As stakeholders in their future, and ours, both children’s voices and needs must guide our policies and actions, ensuring a livable and equitable planet for all.
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Figures
Credit: UNICEF (2023b)
Figure 2
Children Displaced in a Changing Climate
Credit: UNICEF (2023a)
[1] While the field of prenatal climate related catastrophic exposures is an emerging one, evidence suggests that significant epigenetic changes may influence child development and health outcomes later in life (Feil & Fraga, 2012; Perera, & Herbstman, 2011).